Camera dei deputati - XVI Legislatura - Dossier di documentazione
(Versione per stampa)
| |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Autore: | Servizio Studi - Dipartimento affari esteri | ||||
Titolo: | Focus settimanale - La crisi politica in Libia e negli altri paesi del Nord Africa e del Medio Oriente - Aggiornamento al 28 marzo 2011, ore 18 - Cronologia; documenti ufficiali e dibattiti parlamentari; interpretazioni ed analisi | ||||
Serie: | Documentazione e ricerche Numero: 208 Progressivo: 2 | ||||
Data: | 28/03/2011 | ||||
Descrittori: |
| ||||
Organi della Camera: | III-Affari esteri e comunitari |
|
Camera dei deputati |
XVI LEGISLATURA |
|
|
|
Documentazione e ricerche |
La
crisi politica in Libia e negli altri paesi del Nord Africa
|
Aggiornamento al 28 marzo 2011,
ore 18 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
n. 208/2 |
|
|
|
28 marzo 2011 |
Servizio responsabile: |
Dipartimento Affari esteri ( 066760-4172 – * st_affari_esteri@camera.it
|
|
|
|
|
|
I dossier dei servizi e degli uffici della Camera sono destinati alle esigenze di documentazione interna per l'attività degli organi parlamentari e dei parlamentari. La Camera dei deputati declina ogni responsabilità per la loro eventuale utilizzazione o riproduzione per fini non consentiti dalla legge. |
File: es0709b.doc |
INDICE
Cronologia e guida alla lettura
Gli sviluppi della crisi libica
Gli altri contesti di crisi in Medio Oriente e Nord Africa
§ Conclusioni Consiglio Europeo 24-25 marzo 2011 (stralci)
§ NATO - Assunzione controllo embargo delle armi contro la Libia – comunicato stampa del 23 marzo 2011
§ NATO - Assunzione del controllo della no-fly zone sulla Libia – comunicato stampa del 25 marzo 2011
§ NATO - Dichiarazione del Segretario Generale sulla Libia del 27 marzo 2011
§ Stratfor, L’evoluzione della situazione militare in Libia – Mappe e commento, in: www.stratfor.com, 24-28 marzo 2011
§ Stratfor, Europe’s Libya Intervention: Italy, in: www.stratfor.com, 28 marzo 2011
§ Special Report: Libya’s Tribal Dynamics, in: www.stratfor.com, 25 febbraio 2011
Altri contesti di crisi in Medio Oriente e Nord Africa
§ N. Brown, Next Steps in Egypt’s Transition, in: www.carnegieendowment.org, 22 marzo 2011
Le conseguenze sugli equilibri generali
§ The New Republic - C. Gershman, The Fourth Wave, in: www.tnr.com, 14 marzo 2011
§ J. Pisani-Ferry, L’Europa e la primavera araba, in: www.ilsole24ore.com, 24 marzo 2011
§ P. Quercia, Un fardello di gelsomini, in: Limes – rivista italiana di geopolitica, 24 marzo 2011
Sviluppi successivi al 23 marzo[1]
La situazione militare
Dal punto di vista militare, negli ultimi giorni gli attacchi aerei della coalizione internazionale sono proseguiti, mentre sul terreno si è registrata una controffensiva degli insorti riconducibili al consiglio transitorio nazionale libico, che hanno riconquistato le città di Ajdabya, Brega, Ras Lanouf, giungendo a combattere nei pressi di Sirte.
Per una ricostruzione e interpretazione delle operazioni militari, effettuata da Stratfor, si rinvia alla documentazione e alle mappe nella sezione pubblicistica
In particolare:
nella giornata del 24 marzo, con attacchi aerei di intensità inferiore rispetto a quelli dei giorni precedenti, sono stati colpiti obiettivi nelle città di Ajdabya, Tripoli, Jafar, Al Jufrah e Misurata; missili cruise hanno colpito Tripoli e la città di Sabah. Un aereo libico è stato distrutto al suolo presso Misurata, dopo essersi levato brevemente in volo in violazione della zona di interdizione al volo;
nella notta del 25 marzo e nella mattina del 26 marzo gli attacchi aerei della coalizione hanno colpito le truppe libiche intorno alla città di Ajdabya, contesa tra le forze fedeli a Gheddafi e gli insorti del consiglio transitorio nazionale libico; nella mattina del 26 marzo, le truppe fedeli a Gheddafi mantenevano il controllo della sola estremità occidentale della città, una posizione strategicamente non sostenibile;
nella notte tra il 26 e il 27 marzo gli attacchi militari si sono intensificati: i tornado britannici hanno distrutto tre veicoli armati a Misurata e due veicoli armati a Ajdabaya; venti aerei francesi, supportati da aerei Awacs hanno colpito cinque aerei libici e due elicotteri MI-35 in una base fuori Misurata, mentre il personale della base stava predisponendo il loro impiego; attacchi aerei sono registrati a Sabha, Sirte, e Brega; le truppe degli insorti riconducibili al Consiglio transitorio nazionale libico hanno assunto il controllo di Ajdabya, Brega e Ras Lanuf. Il controllo di queste città assicura al consiglio transitorio nazionale libico la disponibilità delle principali infrastrutture energetiche e dei principali terminal petroliferi del paese ed apre la via per la città di Sirte;
nella notte tra il 27 e il 28 marzo attacchi aerei della coalizione internazionale sono indicati a Tripoli e, per la prima volta, nella città natale di Gheddafi, Sirte; gli aerei francesi hanno attaccato veicoli militari e depositi di munizioni attorno alla città di Misurata e di Zentan; fonti giornalistiche della Reuters hanno indicato la presenza di venti convogli delle forze governative libiche, accompagnati anche da civili armati, in uscita dalla città di Sirte, mentre i furgoni degli insorti, carichi di armi, sono indicati sulla strada verso la medesima città; altre fonti giornalistiche indicano gli insorti a circa 90 kilometri da Sirte. Secondo alcune interpretazioni il governo libico starebbe predisponendo una ritirata strategica da Sirte, per consolidare le loro posizioni all’interno delle aree urbane più ad Occidente.
La situazione politico-diplomatica
Il 24 marzo il segretario generale delle Nazioni Unite, riferendo al Consiglio di sicurezza, ha avvertito il regime di Tripoli che, in caso di mancato rispetto delle previsioni della risoluzione 1973, potranno essere adottate ulteriori misure, soprattutto se non cessano le violenze contro la popolazione. Ban ki-Moon ha riferito al Consiglio di sicurezza anche sull'emergenza immigrati, che vede sinora più di 330.000 persone che hanno lasciato la Libia dall'inizio della crisi, mentre ulteriori ondate di profughi potrebbero raggiungere anche le 250.000 unità. Ban ki-Moon ha inoltre ricordato il problema dei più di 9.000 profughi bloccati ai confini della Libia con l'Egitto o, dalla parte opposta, con la Tunisia.
Nella stessa giornata la NATO ha comunicato la decisione concorde degli Stati membri affinché anche le operazioni connesse all’imposizione della no fly zone passino sotto il controllo dell’Alleanza atlantica (mentre già dal 23 marzo la NATO ha assunto il controllo marittimo dell’embargo sulle armi). L’operazione ha assunto la denominazione Unified Protector
Il controllo della NATO sull’operazione è stato poi ribadito con il comunicato del 27 marzo 2011 del segretario generale della NATO, al termine del consiglio atlantico svoltosi la stessa giornata. Anche Emirati Arabi Uniti e Qatar hanno messo a disposizione propri aerei per sorvegliare l’implementazione della no-fly zone.
Allo stesso tempo, è stato convocato per il 29 marzo un incontro a Londra tra i rappresentanti dei paesi fin qui partecipanti all’iniziativa militare internazionale. In questo contesto, il presidente francese Sarkozy ha annunciato la messa a punto di una soluzione politico-diplomatica per la Libia, di concerto con il Regno Unito, mentre il ministro degli esteri Frattini ha fatto riferimento alla promozione di un’iniziativa di pace italo-tedesca che includerebbe, tra le altre cose, l’esilio del leader libico Gheddafi, contestualmente all’instaurazione di un cessate il fuoco sotto controllo ONU.
Anche le conclusioni del Consiglio europeo di primavera del 24-25 marzo prendono atto con soddisfazione del fatto che “le azioni intraprese in conformità al mandato del Consiglio di sicurezza hanno contribuito in modo significativo a proteggere la popolazione civile e le zone popolate da civili minacciate d'attacco e a salvare vite tra i civili”. Inoltre il “Consiglio europeo ha ribadito l'invito al colonnello Gheddafi ad abbandonare il potere immediatamente per consentire alla Libia di avviarsi rapidamente ad una transizione ordinata a guida libica verso la democrazia attraverso un dialogo su basi ampie, tenendo altresì conto della necessità di garantire la sovranità e l'integrità territoriale della Libia”. Oltre alle misure già deliberate nei confronti della Libia, l’Unione europea “è pronta ad avviare ed adottare ulteriori sanzioni, comprese misure intese a garantire che gli introiti generati dal petrolio e dal gas non vadano al regime di Gheddafi. Gli Stati membri presenteranno proposte analoghe al Consiglio di sicurezza dell'ONU” – il comunicato recepisce in questa parte le proposte della Germania per l'inasprimento delle sanzioni commerciali e per un embargo totale nei confronti del petrolio e del gas libici, alle quali il nostro Paese, unitamente ad altri, ha aggiunto la prospettiva di un'adozione a livello delle Nazioni Unite, per impedire che Stati non europei possano surrettiziamente subentrare nei rapporti petroliferi con la Libia. Il Consiglio europeo ha inoltre impegnato l'Unione a proseguire nella fornitura di assistenza umanitaria a tutte le persone colpite, in stretta cooperazione con tutte le agenzie umanitarie e ONG coinvolte. Sono stati inoltre enunciati alcuni criteri guida per la realizzazione di un più ampio partenariato euromediterraneo, dando seguito alla dichiarazione conclusiva del Consiglio europeo straordinario dell'11 marzo. In tale contesto si colloca la messa a punto di un piano per lo sviluppo delle capacità di gestione della migrazione e dei flussi di profughi, anche attraverso il rafforzamento delle capacità operative dell'Agenzia europea FRONTEX. A tal proposito il Consiglio europeo afferma che l'Unione “e i suoi Stati membri sono pronti a dimostrare concreta solidarietà agli Stati membri esposti più direttamente ai flussi migratori e a fornire il necessario sostegno a seconda dell'evolversi della situazione”.
Le comunicazioni e le deliberazioni assunte in sede ONU, NATO e di Unione europea sopra citate, così come un resoconto dell’incontro promosso dall’Unione africana il 25 marzo, sono riportate nel presente dossier nella sezione documentazione ufficiale.
Il coinvolgimento della NATO appare coerente anche con gli orientamenti dell’amministrazione USA, che ha negli scorsi giorni ribadito il suo orientamento a non voler assumere un impegno militare di lungo periodo nei confronti della Libia. Sulla questione libica è atteso un intervento del presidente Obama per la sera del 28 marzo.
Peraltro, l’amministrazione Obama è stata sottoposta a critiche da parte di esponenti repubblicani del Congresso (ed anche dello speaker repubblicano della Camera Boehner) per non aver richiesto l’autorizzazione del Congresso per l’intervento militare in Libia, ai sensi della War Powers Resolution del 1973.
Al riguardo, si segnalano, nella sezione documentazione ufficiale, la lettera del capogruppo repubblicano alla Commissione esteri del Senato Lugar al presidente della Commissione Kerry e la difesa dell’intervento USA operata dal consigliere legale del Dipartimento di Stato, nonché l’intervento, critico nei confronti dell’amministrazione Obama, del costituzionalista di area “liberal” Bruce Ackerman.
Nella giornata del 28 marzo, inoltre, il Ministro degli esteri russo Lavrov ha dichiarato di ritenere l’intervento della coalizione internazionale in Libia non compatibile con il mandato della risoluzione n. 1973. Nella stessa giornata, in un’intervista al quotidiano britannico “The Guardian”, il primo ministro turco Erdogan ha delineato per il suo paese un ruolo di mediatore tra il governo libico ed il consiglio nazionale transitorio di Bengasi. Erdogan ha anche annunciato che la Turchia starebbe per assumere, in accordo con la NATO, il controllo del porto di Bengasi per la gestione degli aiuti umanitari.
Sulla Libia nella sezione pubblicistica, sono riportate, tra le altre cose, anche una ricostruzione delle forze militari della coalizione impegnate nelle operazioni ed una sintesi delle dinamiche tribali libiche, oltre a valutazioni ed analisi sugli sviluppi geopolitici della situazione.
Nelle giornate successive al 24 marzo[2] è emersa come ulteriore situazione di consistente instabilità politica quella siriana. Una prima valutazione dei fatti indica nelle proteste scoppiate anche in Siria una combinazione tra le richieste di maggiori libertà civili e politiche avanzate dagli storici dissidenti del regime, la cui influenza è però limitata, e circoscritta alle aree urbane, e l’insoddisfazione di alcuni clan tribali (quali quello degli Abizaid) assai influenti nelle aree rurali, insoddisfazione legata a fattori politici locali (quali il mancato sostegno alla crisi agricola nella regione di Hawran, il “granaio” della Siria e presunti episodi di corruzione che coinvolgerebbero esponenti del regime, come l’installazione, nella città di Daraa nella stessa regione, di una serie di ripetitori per la telefonia cellulare della compagnia di proprietà del cugino del presidente Assad in prossimità delle abitazioni e di cisterne per l’acqua potabile). Questi fattori si inseriscono nel delicato equilibrio siriano che vede il controllo del governo, sia pure su basi laiche e attraverso l’ideologia nazionalista panaraba del Baath, da parte della famiglia Assad, appartenente alla setta di derivazione sciita degli Alawiti, in un paese a maggioranza sunnita.
Di seguito si riporta una sintetica cronologia degli avvenimenti:
febbraio: Aisha Abizaid, del clan degli Abizaid, radicato nella città di Daraa 150 km a sud di Damasco, è arrestata con l’accusa di aver espresso un’opinione politica su Internet.
6 marzo: si ha notizia dell’arresto di circa 20 adolescenti nella città di Daraa, tutti appartenenti al clan degli Abizaid, colpevoli di aver cantato a scuola slogan contro il regime.
15 marzo: si svolgono manifestazioni di protesta contro il regime promosse dal gruppo Facebook “Intifada siriana 15 marzo”; le manifestazioni vedono una scarsa partecipazione a Damasco, dove si svolge un sit-in davanti al Ministero dell’interno con circa 150 partecipanti, mentre vedono una partecipazione massiccia a Daraa e a Dayr az Zor, capoluogo della regione orientale ai confini con l’Iraq.
18 marzo: repressione da parte delle forze di sicurezza delle manifestazioni di Daraa.
20 marzo: viene annunciato il rilascio dei bambini arrestati a Daraa, senza che tuttavia se ne abbiano conferme. Annunciato anche il dimissionamento del governatore di Daraa.
23 marzo: le manifestazioni di Daraa sono represse dalle forze dell’ordine; fonti ospedaliere riportano la presenza di 37 morti, mentre per gli organizzatori delle manifestazioni il bilancio sarebbe più grave, con circa 100 morti. Segnalato anche l’arresto di Marzen Darwish, dissidente, presidente del Centro per i Media e per la libertà di espressione siriano.
24 marzo: il consigliere del presidente Assad Bhutayana Shaaban annuncia l’avvio di un processo di riforme, attraverso la convocazione di un Alto comitato di studio incaricato di predisporre l’abrogazione dello stato di emergenza, in vigore, come già si è accennato, ininterrottamente dal 1963 e di elaborare una legge sui partiti, per superare il monopolio del partito Baath. E’ inoltre annunciato l’aumento del 30 per cento degli stipendi dei pubblici dipendenti e l’introduzione di misure anti-corruzione
25-26 marzo: nuove manifestazioni si verificano a Daraa ed anche in altre città quali Latakia, città di origine della famiglia Assad. Si verificano nuovi scontri. Secondo Amnesty International nel complesso delle proteste potrebbero essersi verificate almeno 55 vittime. E’ annunciato il rilascio di prigionieri politici detenuti nelle carceri siriane
27 marzo: il consigliere del presidente Shabaan annuncia che la decisione della revoca dello stato di emergenza, da sostituire con una nuova legislazione antiterrorismo, è stata presa, mentre verrà anche costituito un nuovo governo
Per le valutazioni di Amnesty International sull’andamento delle proteste in Siria si rinvia alla sezione “Pubblicistica”
Risulta poi in ulteriore evoluzione la situazione in Yemen: a seguito delle proteste delle scorse settimane, il 27 marzo sono stati avviati negoziati per la formazione di un nuovo governo, mentre alcune fonti avevano indicato nel fine settimana il presidente Saleh in procinto di rassegnare le dimissioni.
Sull’andamento complessivo delle proteste in Nordafrica e Medioriente, sono riportate, nella sezione pubblicistica, due opinioni divergenti: da un lato, quella di Carl Gersham, direttore del National Endowment for Democracy statunitense, che interpreta le proteste in corso come una potenziale “quarta ondata” nel processo di democratizzazione, dopo la “terza ondata” individuata dallo studioso Samuel Huntington nell’arco di tempo 1974-1991 e che aveva coinvolto l’Europa meridionale (Portogallo, Spagna, Grecia), l’America Latina e l’Europa centro-orientale; dall’altro lato le valutazioni più scettiche di Paolo Quercia sul sito della rivista Limes. Nella medesima sezione è anche riportata un’analisi sugli ulteriori possibili sviluppi della transizione costituzionale in corso in Egitto.
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
Security Council
24 March 2011
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Briefing to the Security Council on the situation in Libya
Mr.President,
I appreciate this opportunity to brief the Security Council on the situation in Libya and discuss events following in the wake of the Council's passage of Resolution 1973.
At the Paris Summit, convened on 19 March by President Sarkozy, the unified international community called for an immediate ceasefire and agreed to undertake necessary measures, pursuant to Resolution 1973, to stop the brutal campaign of violence by the Libyan regime against its own people.
Resolution 1973 also reaffirmed Libya's sovereignty and territorial integrity and explicitly foreclosed any foreign occupation of Libyan territory.
These issues dominated discussions during my recent travels. Authorities in Egypt and Tunisia were deeply concerned about their nationals still in Libya and the heavy burden of caring for refugees at their borders, as well as the daunting task of reintegrating nationals who had left the country.
In all my meetings, public and private, I took special care to stress that action under Resolution 1973 is governed by an over-riding objective – to save the lives of innocent civilians.
The international community has acted together to avert a potential larger scale crisis. I expect the international community to continue to exercise full diligence in avoiding civilian casualties and collateral damage.
Finally, I emphasized how important it is for the international community to speak with one voice, both in implementing Resolution 1973 and in dealing with the humanitarian situation. Tunisia and Egypt, because it has borne the brunt of the refugee crisis, deserves high praise.
Mr. President:
Let me now update you on the implementation of Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973.
As you are aware, military strikes were initiated on 19 March by US and European forces with the objective of effectively establishing a no-fly zone over the country. That campaign is on-going.
Libyan authorities have repeatedly claimed that they have instituted a ceasefire, including in a call to me by the Prime Minister of Libya on 19 March.
We see no evidence that is the case. To the contrary, fierce battles have continued in or around the cities of Ajdabiya, Misratah and Zitan, among others. In short, there is no evidence that Libyan authorities have taken steps to carry out their obligations under Resolutions 1970 or 1973.
From the beginning, the United Nations has engaged in strong diplomatic efforts. I have kept in close touch with all parties, including Libyan authorities. I have called repeatedly for an immediate end to the violence and for unrestricted humanitarian access. In this context, let me note: humanitarian aid is exempt [from] the sanctions regime.
On 13 March, my Special Envoy to Libya, Mr. Abdel-Elah al-Khatib, visited Tripoli accompanied by the UN Humanitarian Coordinator. They and their teams undertook broad consultations with the Libyan Foreign Minister and other senior officials. My envoy set forth the international community's position clearly and unequivocally: attacks on civilians must stop; those responsible for crimes against their people will be accountable; safe humanitarian access must be guaranteed; and resolutions 1970 and 1973 must be implemented in full.
The Special Envoy emphasized that it was in Libya's best interest to cease hostilities and change the dynamics of the crisis. If Libya did not act to comply with Resolution 1973, the Envoy stated, the Security Council may be prepared to take additional measures.
The Libyan Foreign Minister responded by claiming that the Government had been forced to act as it has by perceived threats from Al-Qaida and Islamist terrorists. He has told the Special Envoy that Libyan authorities offered an amnesty to rebels who laid down their arms. Further, he stressed that mechanisms should be put in place so that rebel forces are also required to abide by any ceasefire.
On 21 March, my Special Envoy met with leaders of the Libyan armed opposition, including the Chairman of the “Libyan Transitional National Council” in Tobruk. They reiterated their call for a ceasefire, as well as lifting the siege imposed by Libyan government forces on some cities in rebel hands. They also expressed deep concern about the hardships inflicted on the Libyan people and demanded an end to the use of tanks and heavy weaponry targeting civilians. They further requested that we quickly dispatch a humanitarian assessment mission to all parts of the country.
Yesterday, I had an informal meeting with the African Union Chairman, Mr. Jean Ping, and discussed at length on how the United Nations and African Union can work together to resolve the Libyan situation.
Tomorrow, my Special Envoy will travel to Addis Ababa for a meeting convened by the African Union. Representatives of both the Libyan government and the opposition will attend, as well as relevant Member States and regional organizations. Their aim: to reach a ceasefire and political solution.
Mr. President,
Security Council Resolution 1973 demands that the Libyan authorities comply with their obligations under international law.
The UN Humanitarian Coordinator and his team have had only limited access. We have serious concerns, however, about the protection of civilians, abuses of human rights and violations of international humanitarian law, and the access of civilian populations to basic commodities and services in areas currently under siege.
More than 335,658 people have fled Libya since the beginning of the crisis. Some 9,000 remain stranded along Libya's borders with Tunisia and Egypt. As of 21 March, IOM and UNHCR have provided evacuation assistance for more than 60,000 people leaving Libya. The Regional Flash Appeal for the Libyan Crisis, which requested US$160.3 million, is 63 percent funded. There are also contingency plans to deal with possible new waves of migrants and refugees totalling as many as 200-250,000 people.
Meanwhile, the World Food Programme has received reports that food prices in Libya are rising sharply – with the price of flour, for example, doubling in recent weeks.
The UN and the Libyan authorities continue to be far apart in their respective analyses of the scope and scale of the humanitarian situation. No agreement has been reached on how an inter-agency needs-assessment mission would be carried out.
I would like to remind all parties currently engaged in hostilities in Libya of their obligations under international humanitarian law to allow and facilitate the safe, rapid and unimpeded access by humanitarian organisations to populations in need.
My Special Envoy's mission was too brief to reach definitive conclusions about the human rights situation, but they found many worrying signs, including threats and incitement against the armed opposition. Colonel Qadhafi's threats were aired repeatedly on national television. Journalists continue to be arrested. Foreign reporters in Tripoli told the UN mission about the population's general state of fear, tight control by the security services, and instances of arrest and disappearances.
In light of these findings, the Special Envoy informed the Government of Libya of the intention by the Human Rights Council to create an independent International Commission of Inquiry that will investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in Libya, identify those responsible, make recommendations and report to the Human Rights Council. The Special Envoy formally requested the cooperation of the Government of Libya with the Commission of Inquiry, and this request was met with a positive response even though specific actions were not discussed.
Mr. President,
Resolution 1973 requests Member States to inform my office immediately of the measures they take or intend to take to protect civilians, enforce the no-fly zone, and facilitate humanitarian operations and evacuation flights. The resolution requires that I report to the Council within 7 days, and every month thereafter, on the implementation of the resolution, including any information on violations of the flight ban. Today, I am submitting my first report.
So far, the United Kingdom, France, United States, Denmark, Canada, Italy, Qatar, Belgium, Norway, Spain and the United Arab Emirates have sent letters of notification, circulated to all Council Members, in line with the provisions of Resolution 1973. We have also received notification from NATO of its decision to commence an alliance operation in support of an arms embargo against Libya, pursuant to Resolutions 1970 and 1973.
I look forward to being kept informed as further implementing steps are being taken by your governments, including the mechanism envisaged in paragraph 8 of the resolution. I shall also designate a focal point for coordination within the Secretariat.
We are similarly looking forward to receiving a concept of operations from Member States as envisaged paragraph 11 of the resolution.
Resolution 1973 further requests that I set up a panel of experts to assist the Libya Committee in monitoring the implementation of the sanctions. The Secretariat is reviewing its roster of sanctions experts to identify suitable candidates. Some have already been contacted. It is expected that those appointed to the panel will possess expertise in the areas of arms, finance, transportation (both aviation and maritime) and customs and border control.
Excellencies,
Given the critical situation on the ground, it is imperative that we continue to act with speed and decision.
The resolution places great responsibilities on the UN system. I assure you that we will work closely with Member States and regional organizations to coordinate a common, effective and timely response.
Thank you Mr. President.
(Stralci)
27 Mar. 2011
Statement by NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen on Libya
NATO Allies have decided to take on the whole military operation in Libya under the United Nations Security Council Resolution. Our goal is to protect civilians and civilian-populated areas under threat of attack from the Gaddafi regime. NATO will implement all aspects of the UN Resolution. Nothing more, nothing less.
This is a very significant step, which proves NATO's capability to take decisive action.
In the past week, we have put together a complete package of operations in support of the United Nations Resolution by sea and by air. We are already enforcing the arms embargo and the No Fly Zone, and with today's decision we are going beyond. We will be acting in close coordination with our international and regional partners to protect the people of Libya.
We have directed NATO's top operational Commander to begin executing this operation with immediate effect.
.
Statement Regarding Use of Force in Libya
Remarks
Harold Hongju Koh
Legal Advisor U.S. Department of State
American Society of International Law Annual Meeting
Washington, DC
March 26, 2011
Thank you, Monica. It is always a pleasure and an honor to speak here at the American Society of International Law.
As your President, David Caron, noted last night, I am the 22nd American to serve as Legal Adviser of the U.S. Department of State, and I am honored to serve during this, the eightieth year after Congress first created our office by statute. At a conference on the history of the Legal Adviser’s Office held at Georgetown Law School earlier this month, I gave a keynote address that took note of the Legal Adviser’s historical role as spokesperson for the United States government regarding international law, and of what I called the Legal Adviser’s “Duty to Explain:” the historical practice of the Legal Adviser publicly explaining the legal basis for United States military actions that might occur in the international realm. It is in that spirit that I appear here this morning to give the following statement:
***
On March 19, 2011, at President Obama’s direction, U.S. military forces began a series of strikes in the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States to enforce UN Security Council Resolution 1973. These strikes will be limited in their nature, duration, and scope.
Their explicit purpose is to support an international coalition as it takes all necessary measures to enforce the terms of Resolution 1973 (adopted on March 17, 2011), as part of an international effort authorized by the United Nations Security Council and undertaken with the support of European allies and Arab partners, to prevent a humanitarian catastrophe and address the threat posed to international peace and security by the crisis in Libya.
U.S. forces are conducting a limited and well-defined mission in support of international efforts to protect civilians, to prevent a humanitarian disaster, and to set the stage for further action by other coalition partners. U.S. military efforts are discrete and focused on employing unique U.S. military capabilities to set the conditions for our European Allies and Arab partners to continue to carry out the measures authorized by Resolution 1973. The United States has not deployed ground forces into Libya and will not do so. U.S. forces have targeted the Qaddafi regime’s air defense systems, command and control structures, and other capabilities of Qaddafi’s armed forces used to attack civilians and civilian populated areas. We are working with our allies to transition to NATO and other partners the principal command and control of this effort and to ensure the continuation of activities necessary to realize the objectives of UN Security Council Resolutions 1970 (adopted on February 26, 2011) and 1973.
As Secretary of State Clinton emphasized on March 24 (Thursday night),
“From the start, President Obama has stressed that the role of the U.S. military would be limited in time and scope. Our mission has been to use America’s unique capabilities to create the conditions for the no-fly zone and to assist in meeting urgent humanitarian needs. And as expected, we’re already seeing a significant reduction in the number of U.S. planes involved in operations as the number of planes from other countries increase in numbers. [As of Thursday, March 24 we took] the next step. We have agreed, along with our NATO allies, to transition command and control for the no-fly zone over Libya to NATO. All 28 allies have also now authorized military authorities to develop an operations plan for NATO to take on the broader civilian protection mission under Resolution 1973.”
As our press spokesman specified yesterday, “this decision to go forward with the planning reflects an agreement in principle by allies that this mission should be integrated into NATO’s command and control role, but it will not be formally agreed until allies approve the plan, which will take place likely [either tomorrow] or Monday – Sunday March 27th or Monday March 28th.”
These United States military actions rest on ample international legal authority. Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter grants authority to the Security Council to decide what measures shall be taken to maintain or restore international peace and security where it determines the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression (Article 39). Articles 41 and 42 further specify that the Security Council may take such action by air, sea and land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Acting under Chapter VII, in Resolution 1973, the Security Council determined that the situation in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya constitutes a threat to international peace and security (PP21), and : (1) in operative paragraphs 6 to 8 of the resolution imposed a No-Fly Zone in the air space of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in order to help protect civilians, and authorized states to take “all necessary measures” to enforce that No-Fly Zone in accordance with the Resolution, (2) in operative paragraph 4 authorized Member States to take all necessary measures to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, including Benghazi, while excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory; and (3) in operative paragraph 13 authorized Member States to use all measures commensurate to the specific circumstances to carry out inspections aimed at the enforcement of the arms embargo. Under the Security Council authorizations, Member States may also work through regional organizations or arrangements and with local partners who share the goal of preventing attacks on civilians or civilian populated areas.
Resolution 1973 sent Qaddafi a very clear message that a ceasefire must be implemented immediately. In addition, President Obama made clear that Qaddafi was to stop his forces from advancing on Benghazi, to pull them back from Ajdabiya, Misrata, and Zawiyah, and to establish water, electricity, and gas supplies to all areas. The Resolutions also made clear that humanitarian assistance had to be allowed to reach the people of Libya. Although Qaddafi’s Foreign Minister announced a ceasefire, Qaddafi and his forces instead continued attacks on Misrata, and advanced on Benghazi.
Qaddafi also threatened civilians living in areas that refused to acquiesce to his threats, declaring, “We will come house by house, room by room. . . . We will find you in your closets. We will have no mercy and no pity.” As President Obama said in his weekly address “I firmly believe that when innocent people are being brutalized; when someone like Qaddafi threatens a bloodbath that could destabilize an entire region; and when the international community is prepared to come together to save thousands of lives – then it’s in our national interest to act. And, it’s our responsibility. This is one of those times.”
Qaddafi’s defiance of the Arab League as well as the broader international community represents a lawless challenge to the authority of the Security Council and its efforts to preserve stability in the region. The United States supports the Security Council’s conclusion that Qaddafi’s continued attacks and threats against civilians and civilian populated areas are of grave concern to neighboring Arab nations and constitute a threat to the region and to international peace and security. His illegitimate use of force not only is causing the deaths of substantial numbers of civilians among his own people, but also is forcing many others to flee to neighboring countries, thereby destabilizing the peace and security of the region. Qaddafi has forfeited his responsibility to protect his own citizens and created a serious need for immediate humanitarian assistance and protection, with any further delay only putting more civilians at risk. Left unaddressed, the growing instability in Libya could ignite wider instability in the Middle East with dangerous consequences to the national security interests of the United States, which made these actions necessary.
The President directed these actions, which are in the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States, pursuant to his constitutional authority to conduct U.S. foreign relations and as Commander in Chief and Chief Executive. The President has well-recognized authority to authorize a mission of this kind, which as he explained, will be time-limited, well-defined, discrete, and aimed at preventing an imminent humanitarian catastrophe that directly implicates the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States. The Administration has been closely consulting Congress regarding the situation in Libya, including in a session with the bipartisan leadership that the President conducted before his announcement. Before Resolution 1973 was adopted, on March 1, 2011 the Senate adopted its own resolution by unanimous consent (S. Res. 85) calling for a No-Fly zone. The President has acted consistently with the reporting requirements in the War Powers Resolution, and has furthermore indicated that he is committed to ongoing, close consultations with Congress as the situation develops.
In sum, the United States’ military actions in Libya are lawful.
Thank you very much.
SIWEB
Operation Odyssey Dawn/Ellamy/Harmattan/Mobile - Allied assets deployed to Libya
By Henry Boyd, Research Assistant for The Military Balance
As military operations conducted to enforce United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 continue, keeping track of what assets are being used where and by whom becomes increasingly difficult.
In order to ensure informed debate on this particular conflict, the Defence and Military Analysis Programme of the IISS has compiled the following list of those air and naval assets known or believed to have been either used or made available for use in operations to date.
As with all military operations, reliable intelligence is difficult to secure. Given the current fluidity of the conflict, the information is also transitory. As such, the list below is accurate to the best of the IISS’ ability as of 23 March 2011.
The assets are listed by country or organisation. Aircraft are listed with type and location where possible. Naval assets are listed with type and pennant number. Not all platforms may be in use at any time, but are available for operations.
Coalition assets as of 23 March 2011
BELGIUM
Air assets
· 8 F-16AM/BM Fighting Falcon (FTR: Araxos, GRC; redeploying to Souda Bay, GRC)
CANADA
Naval assets
· HMCS Charlottetown (FFGHM: FFH 339)
Air assets
· 7 CF-18 Hornet (FGA: Trapani, ITA)
· 2 CC-150T (TKR: Trapani, ITA)
DENMARK
Air assets
· 6 F-16AM Fighting Falcon (FTR: Sigonella, ITA)
FRANCE
Naval assets
· FS Charles de Gaulle (CVN: R 91) with:8 Rafale M (FGA)/6 Super Etendard Modernisé (FGA)/2 E-2C Hawkeye (AEW&C)
· FS Jean Bart (DDGHM: D 615)
· FS Forbin (DDGHM: D 620)
· FS Dupleix (DDGHM: D 641)
· FS Aconit (FFGHM: F 713)
· FS La Meuse (AORH: A 607)
· FS Amethyste (SSN with SLCM: S 605)[1]
Air assets
· 4 Rafale C (FGA: St Dizier, FRA)
· 2 Rafale B (FGA: St Dizier, FRA)
· 2 Mirage 2000D (FGA: Nancy, FRA)
· 4 Mirage 2000-5 (FTR: Dijon, FRA)
· 6 C-135FR (TKR: Istres-Le Tubé, FRA)
· 2 E-3F (AEW&C: Avord, FRA; may have redeployed to Istres-Le Tubé, FRA)
ITALY
Naval assets
· NMM Giuseppe Garibaldi (CVS: C 551) with 6 AV-8B Harrier II
· NMM Andrea Doria (DDGHM: D 553)
· NMM Franceso Mimbelli (DDGHM: D 561)
· NMM Euro (FFGHM: F 575)
· NMM Fenice (FSM: F 557)
· NMM San Giorgio (LPD: L 9892)
· NMM San Marco (LPD: L 9893)
· NMM Libra (PCO: P 402)
· NMM Sirio (PSOH: P 409)
· NMM Commandante Bettica (PSOH: P 492)
· NMM Etna (AORH: A 5326)
Air assets
· 4 Tornado ECR (FGA: Trapani, ITA)
· 2 Tornado IDS (FGA: Trapani, ITA)
· 4 Typhoon (FTR: Trapani, ITA)
· 2 F-16 Fighting Falcon (FTR: Grosseto, ITA)
NATO
Air assets
· 4 E-3A Sentry (AEW&C: Geilenkirchen, GER)
· 2 E-3A Sentry (AEW&C: Trapani, ITA)
NORWAY[2]
· Air assets
· 6 F-16AM Fighting Falcon (FTR: Souda Bay, GRC
QATAR
Air assets
· 4 Mirage 2000-5EDA (FGA: Souda Bay, GRC)
SPAIN
Naval assets
· SPS Tramontana (SSK: S74)
· SPS Méndez Núñez (DDGHM: F104)
Air assets
· 4 F/A-18 Hornet (FGA: Decimomannu, ITA)
· 1 B-707 (TKR: Decimomannu, ITA)
UNITED KINGDOM
Naval assets
· HMS Triumph (SSN with SLCM: S93)
· HMS Cumberland (FFGHM: F85)
· HMS Westminster (FFGHM: F237)
Air assets
· 2 VC-10 (TKR: Akrotiri, CYP)
· 1 L1011 Tristar (TKR: Akrotiri, CYP)
· 2 E-3D Sentry (AEW&C: Akrotiri, CYP)
· 2 Sentinel R1 (ISR: Akrotiri, CYP)
· 1 Nimrod R1 (ELINT: Akrotiri, CYP)
· 4 Tornado GR4 (FGA: Gioia del Colle, ITA)
· 10 Typhoon (FGA: Gioia del Colle, ITA)
· 4 VC-10 (TKR: RAF Brize Norton, UK)
· 2 L1011 Tristar (TKR: RAF Brize Norton, UK)
· 4 Tornado GR4 (FGA: RAF Marham, UK)
UNITED STATES
Naval assets
· USS Florida (SSGN with SLCM: SSGN 728)[3]
· USS Providence (SSGN with SLCM: SSN 719)3
· USS Scranton (SSGN with SLCM: SSN 756)3
· USS Barry (DDGHM: DDG 52)
· USS Stout (DDGHM: DDG 55)
· USS Kearsage (LHD: LHD 3) with 5 AV-8B Harrier II (FGA)
· USS Ponce (LPD: LPD 15)
· USS Mount Whitney (LCC: LCC 20)
· USNS Kanawha (AO: T-AO 196)
· USNS Lewis And Clark (AFSH: T-AKE 1)
· USNS Robert E Peary (AFSH: T-AKE 5)
Air assets
· 3 B-2A Spirit (BBR: Whiteman, US)
· 1 U-2 (ISR: Akrotiri, CYP)
· 4 E-3B/C Sentry (AEW&C: Rota, ESP)
· ε20 KC-135 (TKR: Morón, ESP)
· 3 KC-10A (TKR/TPT: Morón, ESP)
· 1 EC-130H Compass Call (EW: Souda Bay, GRC)
· 1 EC-130J Commando Solo (EW: Souda Bay, GRC)
· 1 RC-135V Rivet Joint (ELINT: Souda Bay, GRC)
· 5 EA-18G Growler (EW: Aviano ITA)
· 13 F-15E Strike Eagle (FGA: Aviano, ITA)[4]
· 12 F-16CJ Fighting Falcon (FTR: Aviano, ITA)
· 1 EP-3E Aries II (ELINT: Sigonella, ITA)
· 4 P-3C Orion (ASW: Sigonella, ITA)
· ε2 RQ-4A Global Hawk UAV (ISR: Sigonella ITA)
· 1 AC-130U (ATK: RAF Mildenhall, UK)
· ε20 KC-135 (TKR: RAF Mildenhall, UK)
[1] Identification speculative
[2] Norwegian forces deployed to theatre but not yet committed
[3] One of these submarines may have left the operational area March 21st
[4] One ac lost due to mechanical failure March 22nd
Glossary
AEW&C airborne early warning and control
AFSH combat stores ship
with helicopter hangar
AO oiler
AORH Replenishment
oiler with helicopter hangar
ASW anti-submarine
warfare
ATK attack aircraft
CVN nuclear-powered
aircraft carrier
CVS aircraft carrier
(small)
CYP Cyprus
DDGHM Destroyer with
guided missiles, helicopter hangar and surface-to-air missiles
ELINT electronic
intelligence
ESP Spain
EW electronic warfare
FFGHM frigate with
guided missiles, helicopter hangar and surface-to-air missiles
FGA fighter ground attack
FRA France
FSM corvette with
surface-to-air missiles
FTR fighter aircraft
GRC Greece
ISR intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance
ITA Italy
LCC amphibious command
ship
LHD landing helicopter
dock
LPD landing platform
dock
PCO offshore patrol
craft
PSOH offshore patrol
ship with helicopter hangar
SLCM submarine-launched
cruise missile
SSGN nuclear-powered
submarine with dedicated launcher tubes for guided missiles
SSK hunter-killer
submarine
SSN nuclear-power
submarine
TKR tanker aircraft
TPT transport aircraft
UK United Kingdom
US United States
SIWEB
Mission manual
- 21 Mar 11
Now that the mission over Libya has
begun, the debate about how to conduct the war – rather than the reasons for it
– must begin. The last couple of years have provided a treasure chest of
lessons for warfare. But some of those that look particularly attractive are
not 18 carat, but fool’s gold. It will be crucial for European governments to
learn the right ones.
The first is the need to establish a workable C2 – command and control system –
for the mission, which allows political direction and military coordination. So
far the mission is being commanded by U.S. Africa Command under General Carter
Ham with the Joint Task Force Odyssey Dawn run commanded by U.S. Navy Admiral
Samuel J. Locklear aboard the command ship USS Mount Whitney. But this US-only
system is not sustainable for a broader, coalition-based effort. The mission
should quickly be turned over to NATO, or an arrangement needs to be formalised
for Britain, France and other combatants to provide direction to the military
campaign.
Then there is the matter of the aim of the mission. The strategic aim for the
mission, which is sufficiently clear to be understood by all the combatants,
sufficiently realistic so as to avoid a drawn-out campaign and sufficiently
malleable so that the West will not, like over Bosnia in the 1990s, get trapped
by legality. This is no easy feat. The UN resolution talks about protecting
civilians and President Nicolas Sarkozy, in his address to the nation, couched
the intervention in humanitarian language.
This needs to be understood broadly. The strategic aim should be to protect and bolster the opposition and pressure loyalist forces to the degree that they lose the will to fight on and a political process can begin, which forces Colonel Gaddafi and his family from power. It would also allow for some kind of interim power-sharing between loyalists and rebels before a new republic can be constituted. The fact that Ghaddafi has managed a fight-back in the last two weeks is a sign that he does have a broader base of support than - for example - Tunisia's Ben Ali did. Loyalist forces would need to see a future after Gaddafi to discourage them from fighting on.
Ignoring the need to focus on a
political, not a military end to the conflict - even if the West manages to
help the rebels roll back Gaddafi's forces - is to ignore the lessons learnt in
the sands of Helmand. There the West has found that once the Taliban had been
defeated and excluded from having a stake in the polity, they had no choice but
to fight and cajole different groupings and tribes with a grievance against the
new leaders to join them. The West must avoid this happening again in Libya.
The West must also begin planning for Gaddafi’s exit. This is morally
problematic, especially after the UNSC has asked the ICC to investigate
potential crimes committed against the Libyan people, but if Colonel Gaddafi
has no reason to stop fighting, he will not. The result could be a drawn-out
conflict. Better then to find some way out. This would mean promising a safe
passage to a friendly country - like Venezuela or Zimbabwe - or promising to
limit the ICC investigations of crimes to him, not his family and his sons.
There is nothing to say that the international community cannot go back on such
promises, especially if the country Muammar Gaddafi takes up residence in
changes its views. But such deceitfulness is sometimes necessary in foreign
affairs. To push for a process, UN special envoy Abdul Ilah Khatib, a former
Jordanian foreign minister, should work in tandem with a representative of the
Arab League. They should be empowered by the West to do their work. The efforts
by the African Union should be ignored, given the body’s expressed support for
Colonel Gaddafi.
But before things get to this, European governments need to prepare for a
long-term commitment, and ignore the Clintonesque calls for a short-term
engagement by US president Barack Obama. Colonel Gaddafi may be more firmly
ensconced in his capital than even Serb strongman Slobodan Milosevic was, so EU
government should prepare for more than the 78 day campaign that took place
over Kosovo in 1999. They also need not just a "multi-phase" strategy
but a multi-forces one - that is, controlling Libyan airspace and attacking
Libyan ground forces from the air, but supporting the anti-Gaddafi rebels as
they fight in the days ahead. This is primarily a clandestine task, but NATO
should also work with Tunisia to set up a facility across the border to train
the rebels for combat inside Libya. The international community must also gear
their humanitarian effort to what could be the consequences of war.
A lesson from past wars is to keep as much support for the action as possible,
Those nations that are now leading the effort – especially Britain and France -
must also continue to keep those who opposed military action, including
Germany, Turkey, Russia, Algeria and China, inside the process. Excluding them
will give Gaddafi hope and could undermine the military action. The EU’s
foreign policy “czarina” Cathy Ashton should make it a priority to work with
these states, perhaps even appointing an envoy for the task, someone like Lord
David Hannay perhaps or ex-diplomat Wolfgang Ischinger.
While the fighting goes on, the West would do well to prepare for a post-combat
phase. Unlike Iraq, this should not be a prelude to a large, NATO-dominated
engagement, but preferably a UN-mandated, Egyptian-led, NATO-enabled
peacekeeping force. The EU could supply a Security Sector Reform mission, much
as in Congo, but its record over the last weeks does not bode well for a
longer-term role. Such a force should work under a UN mission, which can help
support a transitional process to democracy. Learning from UNAMA’s experience
in Kabul, such a mission should remain small and political, not seek to or
coordinate the country’s post-combat reconstruction.
Wars are easy to start, hard to fight and in many cases harder still to end.
Learning the right lessons from past wars, recent and old ones, is absolutely
key.
L’improvvisato intervento in Libia e la strategia nel Mediterraneo
Stefano Silvestri
24/03/2011
Noi europei ci eravamo illusi che, con la fine della Guerra Fredda, il Mediterraneo fosse diventato un affare di famiglia. Il progressivo allargamento dell’Unione europea nei Balcani, l’ingresso di Malta e Cipro, e l’apertura dei negoziati di adesione con la Turchia avevano avviato un processo di unificazione di tutta la regione settentrionale del Mediterraneo in un’unica realtà europea. D’altro canto, l’Ue è anche il partner commerciale di gran lunga dominante per tutti gli altri paesi delle regioni meridionali del Mediterraneo, in Nord Africa e in Medioriente. Certo, rimaneva (e rimane tutt’ora) l’elemento “di disturbo” creato dal conflitto israelo-palestinese, ma si poteva sperare in qualche modo di isolarlo e ridurne la portata. Ci eravamo, purtroppo, sbagliati di grosso.
Mezzaluna delle crisi
Prima la guerra in Iraq e poi le ambizioni nucleari dell’Iran, unite al nodo irrisolto dell’Afghanistan e al rischio di una crisi pakistana, hanno finito per spostare gli equilibri delle regioni meridionali più verso Est. Più che di Mediterraneo si è cominciato a parlare di un Grande Medioriente che finiva per comprendere tutta la famosa “mezzaluna delle crisi” (come la battezzò Zbigniew Brzezinski) dal Marocco al Corno d’Africa al Golfo e all’Asia centrale ex-sovietica: un contesto regionale dove l’Europa è molto meno influente.
L’arrivo massiccio della Cina e degli Usa in Africa (seguiti a ruota dall’India) ha aperto un’altra porta d’ingresso al mare non più solo “nostrum”, tanto più che la Cina e l’India, assieme al Giappone, sono tra i maggiori clienti del petrolio iraniano e del gas del Golfo (nonché del petrolio e del gas africani). La pirateria legata alla crisi somala ha ridotto il traffico proveniente dal Canale di Suez, ma in compenso è aumentato enormemente il traffico in provenienza dall’Atlantico, con il Marocco, e il nuovo porto di Tangeri, divenuti la nuova porta dell’Occidente (Brasile incluso) per il Mediterraneo. E anche qui arrivano i cinesi (già presenti massicciamente nel porto del Pireo ed interessati a nuovi sbocchi anche in Italia o altrove).
Cambiamento di rotta
E ora è arrivato lo sconquasso politico, già preannunciato dalla crescente autonomia della politica turca, sia dalla Nato che dall’Ue: il risveglio politico dei popoli arabi, dal Nord Africa sino al Golfo, ha messo in crisi l’approccio europeo, di fatto sin troppo legato al mantenimento dell’apparente stabilità garantita dai governi autoritari arabi, dalla Tunisia all’Egitto, dall’Algeria all’Arabia Saudita.
Questo probabilmente spiega anche le incomprensioni e le esitazioni che hanno ritardato la presa di coscienza europea del mutamento in atto: un ritardo che ha finito per favorire il brusco mutamento di rotta che ha caratterizzato la politica francese nel caso della Libia, spingendo l’Europa ad abbracciare quest’ultima rivoluzione sino all’impegno militare contro il regime del Colonnello Gheddafi.
In realtà, anche questa scelta più coraggiosa risente della confusione e delle incertezze iniziali: essa è probabilmente più in linea con le aspirazioni e le aspettative del mondo arabo di quanto non fosse la precedente timorosa paralisi, ma soffre comunque di un grave difetto di improvvisazione. Non è il portato di una nuova strategia europea, ma piuttosto il tentativo di mascherare con un “bel gesto” gli errori precedenti. Non accresce la credibilità dell’Europa: si limita a rimescolare le carte sperando in un servizio migliore alla prossima mano.
Tuttavia ora, se si vuole che la situazione migliori e che l’Europa recuperi peso e ruolo nel Mediterraneo, bisogna fare in modo che la scommessa arrivi a buon fine. Non sarà facile, perché questa nuova avventura è iniziata all’insegna dell’improvvisazione e della frammentazione nazionalista. Gli europei si sono divisi, con la Francia e la Gran Bretagna da un lato, la Germania (e la Turchia) da un altro, e alcuni paesi come l’Italia in un incerto terreno mediano, legato più alla dimensione transatlantica che a quella europea.
Beau geste
In altri termini, nel Mediterraneo rischia di riprodursi (anche se in modo meno aspro e con configurazioni diverse) quella divisione tra europei che avevamo già sperimentato all’epoca della guerra in Iraq. Ma un’Europa divisa ben difficilmente riuscirà ad elaborare una nuova credibile strategia verso il Mediterraneo ed il Medioriente.
Dalle divisioni causate dalla guerra in Iraq l’Europa riuscì a uscire positivamente anche grazie all’approvazione, nel dicembre 2003, della strategia comune di sicurezza proposta dall’allora Alto Rappresentante per la politica estera e la sicurezza, Javier Solana: “Un’Europa sicura in un mondo migliore”. Oggi si delinea la necessità di un’iniziativa analoga per urgenza ed importanza, che stabilisca le linee guida della strategia comune europea nel Mediterraneo e nel Medioriente.
Il riconoscimento che i popoli del Nord Africa e del Medioriente aspirano a forme più moderne - più aperte e democratiche - di governo deve essere accompagnato dagli opportuni incentivi economici e commerciali e dagli investimenti necessari per collegare i “corridoi” continentali europei con un certo numero di “autostrade marittime” attraverso il Mediterraneo. L’Unione europea non può allargarsi a Sud come ha fatto ad Est, ma può offrire ai paesi che lo desiderano forme più avanzate di integrazione economica anche nei settori più protetti, come l’agricoltura.
Sicurezza mediterranea
Allo stesso tempo è necessario formulare i principi di una politica complessiva di “sicurezza mediterranea”, basata sulla cooperazione tra l’Ue, la Nato e un certo numero di paesi arabi e/o islamici democratici o in via di democratizzazione, come la Turchia, il Marocco, la Tunisia, l’Egitto e qualche altro, cui offrire un vero e proprio partenariato di sicurezza, forme agevolate di politica dei visti e aiuti e cooperazione nel campo della lotta alla criminalità organizzata e al terrorismo.
In altri termini, una nuova politica “mediterranea e mediorientale” dell’Unione deve saper diversificare le sue offerte e il suo partenariato con i paesi della regione, privilegiando decisamente quelli che scelgono la strada della maggiore democratizzazione. Solo così infatti l’Europa, oltre a recuperare credibilità politica e morale, potrà consolidare il processo di modernizzazione in atto e sostituire la vecchia e fallimentare politica di (illusoria) stabilità con una strategia di trasformazione nella sicurezza.
La nuova sfida dell’Ue è quella di impostare una nuova politica di sicurezza e cooperazione diretta verso Sud che, pur nella diversità degli strumenti, punti ad essere almeno altrettanto efficace di quella condotta con lo strumento dell’allargamento verso Est.
Stefano Silvestri è presidente dello Iai e direttore di Affarinternazionali.
Libya and the Responsibility to Protect
March 24, 2011
Author: Jayshree Bajoria, Senior Staff Writer
As international efforts to create a no-fly zone over Libya continued into their sixth day (CNN), debate has increased about a UN resolution effectively ordering Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi to end civilian killings and whether it's being applied properly in Libya. UN Security Council Resolution 1973 imposes a no-fly zone and authorizes member states to "take all necessary measures" to protect civilians under attack from the Qaddafi's government.
Proponents of the measure have hailed it as a victory (TheStar) for the "Responsibility to Protect" (R2P) doctrine, while critics say is being used for political (Hindu), and not purely humanitarian, purposes. The R2P concept, unanimously adopted by UN member states in 2005 as part of an outcome document, emerged out of the international community's inability to halt genocides like those in Rwanda and Bosnia. According to the doctrine, if a state fails to protect its citizens from "genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity," it becomes the international community's responsibility to do so. As this Backgrounder notes, it includes use of military force by the international community if peaceful measures prove inadequate.
It is this provision that the doctrine's supporters point to for justifying the air strikes in Libya by some Western countries, including the United States. "The international military intervention (SMH) in Libya is not about bombing for democracy or Muammar Qaddafi's head," says Gareth Evans, a principal author of the R2P concept. "Legally, morally, politically, and militarily it has only one justification: protecting the country's people." R2P proponents also point to regional backing for the no-fly zone from organizations such as the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation Council, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference, stressing its international legitimacy.
But as governments in Yemen and Bahrain also turn violent against protesters and civilians, critics question the selective use of R2P for what the White House calls "limited humanitarian intervention (Yahoo), not war" in Libya. Marjorie Cohn, a law professor at the Thomas Jefferson School of Law, argues the Obama administration is silent on Yemen and Bahrain (HuffingtonPost) because they are close U.S. allies. The White House has condemned the violence in those two countries too, urging their governments to show restraint, but any stronger action has yet to be taken. Others note more pressing cases for humanitarian intervention--from the Democratic Republic of Congo to the Ivory Coast--to question Libya as the R2P test case.
Yet CFR's Stewart Patrick says: "Just because the international community can't or chooses not to act everywhere doesn't mean that it shouldn't act anywhere when there is sufficient political will to be mobilized." Patrick admits geopolitical factors play a role in any intervention: "There is bound to be selectivity and inconsistency in the application of the responsibility to protect norm given the complexity of national interests at stake in U.S. calculations and in the calculations of other major powers involved in these situations."
James Traub argues that Libya presents the best case for intervention because unlike in Congo or Darfur, here "force could work (ForeignPolicy)." In Bahrain, Patrick says, the United States has other forms of leverage "which were absent in the Libyan case or were tried and found wanting."
However, CFR's Micah Zenko calls for caution. "The trouble is, although we are prepared to 'do something' and pull out the most impressive kit in the U.S. toolbox--military power--we aren't actually willing to get involved at the level required to win," he writes. This, he says, "does more harm than good" (ForeignPolicy).
The biggest questions surrounding the mission in Libya are about its objectives, its command structure, and its likely duration. There is no clarity over end-goals or criteria for success, and in the current civil war, "there is little reason to be confident (Politico) the opposition will be able to constitute a benign, national alternative," says CFR President Richard N. Haass.
Additional Analysis:
Daniel Korski of the European Council on Foreign Relations recommends a UN-mandated, Egyptian-led, NATO-enabled peacekeeping force to take over once the fighting is over.
La Guerra incostituzionale di Obama[3]
Di Bruce Ackerman – docente di diritto costituzionale e scienza politica alla Yale University
A causa dell'entrata in guerra unilaterale contro la Libia, Obama sta portando l'America vicina alla “presidenza imperiale” più di quanto Bush avesse mai fatto
Portando il paese in una guerra contro la Libia, l'amministrazione di Barack Obama - un esecutivo che si sta comportando in modo sempre più indipendente dal Congresso in patria e all'estero - ha individuato un nuovo terreno nella sua costruzione di una presidenza imperiale. L’aver ottenuto una risoluzione del Consiglio di sicurezza dell'ONU gli USA sono stati legittimati ad effettuare i bombardamenti degli Stati Uniti dal punto di vista del diritto internazionale. Ma la Carta delle Nazioni Unite non è un sostituto della Costituzione degli Stati Uniti, che dà al Congresso, non al presidente, il potere di "dichiarare guerra".
Dopo la guerra del Vietnam, il Congresso approvò la War Powers Resolution, che ha concesso al presidente il potere di agire unilateralmente per 60 giorni in risposta ad una "emergenza nazionale creata da attacco contro gli Stati Uniti, i suoi territori o possedimenti, o le sue forze armate". La legge ha dato al capo dell’esecutivo ulteriori 30 giorni di tempo per il disimpegno militare nel caso non fosse riuscito nel frattempo ad ottenere l’approvazione del Congresso.
Ma queste disposizioni hanno poco a che vedere con la costituzionalità dell'intervento libico, dal momento che la Libia non ha attaccato le nostre "forze armate". Il presidente ha mancato di menzionare questo punto fondamentale nel notificare al Congresso la sua decisione lunedi, in conformità con un'altra disposizione della War Powers Resolution. Senza un "attacco" armato, non vi è alcuna ragione per il presidente di tagliare fuori il Congresso da una decisione importante sulla guerra e sulla pace.
Ciò è particolarmente evidente in quanto, nel caso libico, il presidente aveva tutto il tempo per ottenere il sostegno del Congresso. Una vasta coalizione - dal senatore John McCain al senatore John Kerry - avrebbe potuto essere mobilitata a supporto di una risoluzione bipartisan, cosi come l'amministrazione impegnata nella necessaria diplomazia internazionale. Ma a quanto pare Obama ha ritenuto più importante fare lobby sulla Lega Araba che il Congresso degli Stati Uniti.
Tagliando fuori il Congresso, Obama è andato anche oltre il dubbio precedente verificatosi quando il presidente Bill Clinton ha bombardato il Kosovo nel 1999. Allora, l’Ufficio di consulenza legale del Dipartimento di Giustizia aveva affermato che il Congresso aveva dato il suo accordo, stanziando appositi fondi per la campagna in Kosovo. Si trattò comunque di un grave strappo, alla luce della realtà dei fatti - ma Obama non può avvalersi dello stesso espediente disperato, dal momento che il Congresso non ha stanziato nessun fondo per la guerra libica. Il presidente sta semplicemente usando i soldi stanziati per scopi generali per il Pentagono, per condurre l’attuale campagna aerea.
La War Powers Resolution non autorizza un solo giorno di bombardamenti libico. Ma fornisce una scappatoia, laddove afferma che il testo della risoluzione non mira "a modificare l'autorità costituzionale del Congresso o del presidente." Quindi apre per Obama la possibilità di affermare che il suo potere come comandante in capo gli permette di fare la guerra senza Congresso, nonostante l'insistenza della Costituzione in senso contrario.
Molti presidenti moderni hanno invocato simili prerogative, e Harry Truman avviò le operazioni militari in Corea sulla base di tale interpretazione. Ma è sorprendente scoprire Obama in procinto di appoggiarsi tali precedenti. E 'stato eletto in reazione alle affermazioni unilateraliste di John Yoo e di altri apologisti dell’era di illegalità di George W. Bush. Eppure egli si sta ora spostando su un terreno che neanche Bush aveva occupato. Dopo il gran parlare dei poteri inerenti al suo ufficio, Bush ottenne che il Congresso autorizzasse le sue guerre in Afghanistan e in Iraq. Ora, Obama sta mettendo i discorsi dell’era Bush in azione in Libia - senza l'autorizzazione del Congresso.
L'insistenza del presidente sulla durata e le finalità limitate della campagna in Libia non è una giustificazione sufficiente. Questi sono esattamente i problemi che il Presidente avrebbe dovuto definire, in collaborazione con il Congresso. Ora che egli sostiene un potere intrinseco, perché non può ridefinire gli obiettivi degli Stati Uniti per conto suo? Non meno importante, cosa potrebbe fermare alcun futuro presidente dall'uso del precedente di Obama per giustificare ancora più aggressive azioni unilaterali?
Il dollaro si ferma a Capitol Hill. Come sempre, l'unilateralismo presidenziale mette il Congresso in una posizione difficile. Non può permettersi di tagliare i fondi immediatamente e mettere la vita degli americani e degli alleati degli Stati Uniti, in pericolo. Ma si può approvare una legge che neghi il finanziamento della missione per un periodo superiore a tre mesi. Ciò potrebbe impedire al presidente di espandere la missione senza aver ottenuto l'appoggio esplicito del Congresso.
Il Congresso americano dovrebbe anche prendere ulteriori iniziative per condurre la presidenza imperiale sotto controllo. All'indomani del Watergate, il Congresso è andato oltre la "War Powers Resolution” emanando una serie di leggi quadro che hanno cercato di imporre lo stato di diritto su una presidenza fuori controllo. Molte di queste leggi non sono riuscite a lavorare come previsto, ma erano il prodotto di una seria indagine guidata dal senatore Frank Church e del membro della Camera dei rappresantanti Otis Pike durante gli anni Settanta. Un’inchiesta simile è imperativo di oggi. Sotto molti aspetti, la guerra di Bush al terrorismo è stata una violazione più radicale delle norme costituzionali di ogni tentativo di Richard Nixon durante Watergate. Eppure il Congresso è stato in silenzio, confidando che Obama avrebbe ripulito la casa da solo.
Il presidente ha dimostrato, con le sue azioni, che questa fiducia non è giustificata. Se il Congresso non riuscirà a rispondere, avremo fatto un grande passo in basso nel percorso verso una presidenza davvero imperiale.
Next Steps in Egypt's Transition
Nathan Brown March 22, 2011 comments
The March 19 vote in favor of constitutional amendments in Egypt provides a strong boost to the military-led transition process and its vigorous electoral schedule. The voter turnout was impressive by Egyptian standards—41 percent of eligible voters, at least double the turnout in any previous national election or referendum—and the victory was overwhelming at 77 percent of voters. But opponents attracted enough votes to make the outcome seem less like the predictable landslides of the authoritarian order. Those who objected to the content of the amendments and—more forcefully—to the process by which they were written and the political sequence they implied marshaled forceful arguments, campaigned hard, and then lost. Thus, Egypt’s transition process will likely rush forward. What are the next steps? The basic sequence of events is clear, but the ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) has not revealed many of the details. Nor has it shared decision-making power over the sequence and rules in any serious way.
Constitutional declaration
The amended articles—most of them governing presidential and parliamentary elections—are now clearly in effect. But the rest of Egypt’s constitution remains suspended. Egypt’s military rulers have suggested that they will very shortly issue a declaration indicating how authority will be exercised while Egypt’s parliament and president are elected, which parts of the 1971 constitution will be brought back into effect, and what their own role will be.
Changes to Laws on Political Parties and Electoral System?
The committee that drafted the amendments also prepared amendments to various laws in order to bring them into conformance with the new provisions, but announcement of the changes was postponed until after the referendum. The SCAF is expected to issue those laws, which will likely be designed to make elections freer and fairer, by decree. The SCAF has suggested that it will change the law on political parties, making it much easier for new parties to register; the Muslim Brotherhood is one of the many groups that would likely take advantage of such a change. The SCAF might also move from the current electoral system of individual parliamentary districts to a proportional representation system in which at least some of the seats would be allocated by a party’s share of the national vote instead of giving all of them to the winning candidates in each district. But if the SCAF is planning on such a move, it has not tipped its hand.
Timing of Parliamentary Election
The SCAF has suggested that parliamentary elections will be held before presidential elections; last week one of its members argued forcefully that attempts to reverse the sequence and have the president elected first (as some have suggested would be preferable because parliamentary elections will be much more complicated than presidential) might simply deliver another dictator. But the generals have also suggested that they may push parliamentary elections back from May or June (when they originally suggested they might be held) until September. This is likely a response to those who claim that Egypt’s party system is simply not sufficiently organized for elections in two or three months.
Presidential Election
The SCAF initially suggested that it might hold the presidential election in the late summer or early fall; if parliamentary elections are postponed until September, then the presidential election might be pushed back until the end of the year.
Under new nomination procedures contained in the constitutional amendments, a party that gains at least a single seat in the upcoming parliamentary elections will be able to nominate a candidate. (If the Brotherhood is able to form a party and does gain seats, it has said it will not run its own candidate this time but it might still throw its weight behind one of the candidates who is running.) Independent candidates can get on the ballot either by getting a certain number of endorsements by parliamentary deputies or gathering signatures (30,000) from eligible voters.
Already some candidates have announced they will run. Most prominent are:
§ Amr Moussa, the former foreign minister and current secretary-general of the Arab League. While popular for his Arab nationalist stances, he will have to overcome his association with the past regime, which has already emerged as a major issue in his campaign.
§ Mohamed ElBaradei, former director of the International Atomic Energy Agency and Nobel Prize winner. While respected for his clear articulation of liberal political stances and courage in openly criticizing the Mubarak regime, he will have to overcome a reputation for an aloof and overly cerebral style. In addition, many Egyptians complain that he has spent (and continues to spend) too much time outside the country to be an appropriate candidate.
§ Hisham al-Bastawisi, leader of a group of judges who confronted the Mubarak regime over the last decade. Al-Bastawisi is, like ElBaradei, widely respected but does not appear to be a natural politician.
§ Ayman Nour, founder of al-Ghad Party. Nour came in a distant second to former President Hosni Mubarak in 2005 and spent the subsequent four years in prison on politically motivated charges. Known as a born politician and an effective campaigner, and admired for his uncompromising opposition to Mubarak, Nour nonetheless enjoys less of a national reputation than Moussa and ElBaradei.
§ Hamdeen Sabahi, founder of the Karama Party, a breakaway from the Nasserist Party that has long sought official licensing. Sabahi, like Nour, has been an important organizer within the opposition and is a gifted politician, but enjoys less widespread popularity than other candidates.
Writing a New Constitution
After the new parliament and president are elected, the provisional constitution allows (and, according to a reading endorsed by a SCAF member, actually requires) a constituent assembly to be selected to draft an entirely new constitution. While the opponents to the amendments wished to have this done as the first rather than the last step, they will ultimately get their wish for an entirely new document.
Nathan Brown is a professor of political science and international affairs at George Washington University and a nonresident senior scholar at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Syria death toll climbs as protests spread
25 March 2011
At least 55 people are believed to have been killed during a week of unrest in and around the Syrian town of Dera’a, Amnesty International said today as protests spread across the country.
Security forces again opened fire on protesters in al-Sanamayn and carried out arrests in Damascus, according to reports on Friday, a day after the authorities pledged to investigate the violence.
"The excessive force apparently again being used by security forces is the latest example of the Syrian authorities' appalling and brutal response to recent dissent, and make their pledge to investigate the violence sound rather hollow " said Philip Luther, Amnesty International’s Deputy director for Middle East and North Africa.
"If the words we heard from the Syrian government yesterday are to mean anything, they must immediately issue clear orders to restrain the security forces to prevent further loss of life."
The names of 55 people who were killed in the Dera’a area before Friday’s protests have been passed to Amnesty International by credible organizations and contacts. Media reports said that as many as 20 people had died today in protests in different parts of the country.
The circumstances of most of the deaths remain unclear. The first occurred during peaceful protests last Friday, 18 March, and several others followed over the next two days. Many more took place during the early hours of Wednesday 23 March when security forces attacked a sit-in at the town’s ‘Omari mosque.
Amnesty International also expressed scepticism over the authorities’ pledge on Thursday to carry out reforms, including “studying” the country’s long-standing emergency law.
“The government has made similar statements before, yet the repressive state of emergency has endured with little tolerance for dissenting views for nearly half a century,” said Philip Luther.
“The Syrian authorities must lift the state of emergency as soon as possible.”
According to Syrian human rights organizations, there are indications that almost all of those who had been arrested in and around Dera’a since 18 March were released.
Amnesty International was able to speak to one of those released. He said he had been detained in a military security office in Dera’a since 22 March and confirmed that he and others held in the same place in connection with the protests had been released by last night.
While several journalists and civil society activists recently arrested elsewhere in Syria were also released in the last 24 hours, Amnesty International is as yet unable to verify the release of all the scores of individuals detained during recent protests in Syria calling for reform.
Read More
Protesters killed in Syria mosque attack amid wave of detentions (News, 23 March 2011)
Independent investigation urged into Syria protest deaths (News, 22 March 2011)
Demanding Change in the Middle East and North Africa (multimedia microsite)
The Fourth Wave
Where the Middle East revolts fit in the history of democratization—and how we can support them.
Carl Gershman
March 14, 2011 | 12:00 am
.Alexis de Tocqueville once wrote that all the great events of the past 700 years—from the Crusades and English wars that decimated the nobles, to the discovery of firearms and the art of printing, to the rise of Protestantism and the discovery of America—had the ineluctable effect of advancing the principle of equality. Political scientist Samuel Huntington went further and identified several historical waves of democratization. The First Wave began with our own revolution in 1776, which was quickly followed by the French Revolution. The Second Wave followed the victory of the Allies in World War II.
The Third Wave, according to Huntington’s thesis, was a global process that began in 1974 with the fall of the military government in Portugal and the death in 1975 of Francisco Franco, followed in both countries by successful democratic transitions. It then spread to Latin America, Asia, Central Europe and Africa, with the number of countries judged to be democracies in the Freedom House annual surveys more than tripling from 39 in 1974 to a high of 123 in 2005. This wave was the result of several factors, including economic growth, the spread of democratic values that undermined the legitimacy of authoritarian regimes, policy changes in Europe and the United States, and the demonstration effect of earlier transitions that Huntington called “snowballing.” To this thesis, Huntington also added the idea of “reverse waves,” or reactions against democratic progress, the first being the rise of fascism and communism in the 1920s and ‘30s, and the second the resurgence of authoritarianism in Latin America, Africa, and Asia in the 1960s and ‘70s.
During the last five years, we have witnessed one of these reversals, though the consensus among democracy specialists is that it has not been a full-scale reverse wave of the kind experienced earlier but rather a democratic “recession.” The number of democracies dipped in 2010 to 114, while the number of countries registering declines in political rights over the last five years has exceeded those registering gains by 77 to 57. Among the developments contributing to these declines have been a widespread crackdown on NGOs, independent media, and opposition political groups in hybrid or semi-authoritarian countries; a much more robust assertiveness internationally by autocracies such as Russia, Iran, Venezuela, and China, whose rising power has itself been a factor contributing to democracy’s decline; and a seeming loss of political will and self-confidence in the leading democracies as a result of political divisions over Iraq “enlargement fatigue” in the EU, and more recently the severe impact of the global economic crisis touched off by the market collapse of 2008. As 2010 drew to a close, the backsliding accelerated with a flurry of new setbacks—notably the rigged re-sentencing of dissident entrepreneur Mikhail Khodorkovsky in Russia, the brutal repression of the political opposition in Belarus following the December 19 presidential election, and the passage of a spate of repressive new laws in Venezuela, where President Hugo Chavez assumed decree powers.
Yet at the very moment those events were occurring, nonviolent democratic protests broke out in Tunisia. They toppled the country’s autocratic government and spread to Egypt, Libya, and across the rest of the Middle East. And we were suddenly presented with a new global situation, in which the possibilities for democratization seemed utterly transformed. The questions we now face are twofold: First, are we witnessing the beginning of a Fourth Wave of democratization, which could extend democracy’s reach into other regions of the world that have been most resistant to democratic change? Second, because such a development would clearly be in the interests of the United States, what can we do to ensure that the potential of these democratic uprisings is realized? The following are some thoughts on the nature of the current Arab revolt and a forward strategy, if you will, for advancing freedom in the world.
It is early to assess the global impact on democracy of this new Arab awakening, but there are four reasons to think that what has happened in the Middle East could have much broader ramifications for democratic progress. The first is that the events in the Middle East offer powerful and, I would argue, conclusive evidence supporting the idea that democracy is a universal value. The Arab Middle East was the only major region of the world that the Third Wave had bypassed completely, leading some commentators to coin the phrase “Arab exceptionalism” to characterize this phenomenon. The Economist magazine, in an article that appeared, ironically, just two weeks before the beginning of the uprising in Tunisia, summarized the various arguments that had been offered to explain the democracy deficit in the Arab world—among them the undemocratic character of Islam and Arab culture, the colonial inheritance of artificial borders and states that weakened a focus on citizen rights, the manipulation by Arab rulers of the conflict with Israel and the fear of the Islamists, and the abundance of oil which both enriched the regimes and freed them from having to serve the needs of tax-paying citizens. All of these are strong arguments, but the fact that they have now been refuted by millions of Arab citizens ready to risk their lives for freedom affirms with remarkable force the message that all people have dignity and should be treated with respect. This message has certainly been heard in countries far beyond the Middle East.
A second reason the Middle East events have the potential to mushroom involves popular attitudes towards democracy. The protests succeeded in Tunisia and Egypt, and stimulated further protests in other countries, partly because democracy enjoys broad popular support in the Middle East. Such support was reflected in the Casablanca Call for Democracy and Human Rights that was approved in October, two months before the start of the uprisings, and approved by over 2,200 Arab intellectuals. In addition, the World Values Survey and other opinion polls conducted over the past decade in Algeria, Iraq, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Palestine and Kuwait show that between 80 and 90 percent of the people want their countries to be ruled by democratic systems. These numbers are similar to the level of support for democracy in other regions. Summarizing the data, Larry Diamond observed last summer that “Public opinion surveys in Asia, Africa, Latin America, the post-communist states, and the Arab states all show majorities of the public within each region prefer democracy as the best form of government. Strikingly, this is true even in the poorer countries of Africa and Asia, and in Arab countries with no direct experience of democracy.” Thus, the demand for democracy that we’ve seen in the Middle East could easily spread to countries in other regions that are still ruled by authoritarian governments.
This suggests a third reason democracy could spread, which is that autocratic regimes in the world today are all, to one degree or another, vulnerable and unstable. This is true, for example, of the three regimes I mentioned earlier that took repressive measures at the end of last year. Putin may be in control in Russia, but he has lost the support of the political elite which fears that his return to the presidency will usher in a period of Brezhnev-like stagnation and continued economic and societal decline. Lukashenko’s decision to crack down in Belarus was taken to head off a popular challenge to the election result, which most opinion analysis and observer reports showed did not give him a victory in the first round. And Chavez assumed decree powers to neutralize the National Assembly, where the opposition has a far greater presence after its victory in the popular vote in last September’s parliamentary election.
Other autocracies are also showing signs of trouble. Fidel Castro has conceded that “the Cuban model doesn’t work for us anymore;” and the China model, for all its economic success, appears less stable in light of what The Economist called Beijing’s “disastrous” response to Liu Xiaobo’s receiving the Nobel Peace Prize, which it said “betrays the government’s insecurity at home.” The Iranian regime succeeded in repressing the Green Revolution, just as the military in Burma crushed the Saffron Revolution two years earlier. But both uprisings had mass popular support and exposed the inherent illegitimacy of each regime. The inexorable erosion of the grotesque dictatorship in North Korea continues apace, with South Korea discreetly preparing for the eventual reunification even as international attention remains focused on the nuclear threat from the North. Tocqueville’s recollection of the 1848 revolutions applies to many contemporary autocracies: “Society was cut in two: those who had nothing were united in common envy, and those who had anything united in common terror.”
The principal new factor responsible for the vulnerability of autocratic regimes today is the rapid growth of new communications technologies and social networks, and this is the fourth reason to think that the contagiousness of the Middle East uprisings could spread. These technologies were a key factor in the Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. Without the Internet, the corruption of Ben Ali and his cronies would not have inflamed public opinion the way it did, leading to the sudden eruption of outrage following the death of Mohamed Bouazizi. And before the Internet, the murder in Alexandria by two police officers of Khaled Sa’id, a young blogger who had posted a video of them sharing the spoils of a drug bust, would have received little attention. But in this new age a half-million Egyptians joined the “We Are All Khaled Sa’id” Facebook page, and it was this page that initiated the January 25 revolution.
Of course not every networked movement is successful. The fact that the Green Revolution in Iran used Twitter, Facebook pages and blogs to great effect as tools for mobilization did not prevent its being crushed by the police and Basij. And China employs more than 50,000 cyber police to enforce the government’s Great Firewall of Internet censorship to control and keep tabs on what is now, at some 400 million people, the world’s largest population of Internet users. We can expect these and other autocratic regimes to use all the means at their disposal to prevent the use of the Internet by political opponents, including hacking and social malware attacks on opposition websites and even shutting down the Internet entirely, as the Burmese and Egyptian governments did during their respective uprisings. Nonetheless, they cannot change the underlying reality, which is that there is a sharpening the contradiction today between closed and repressive states and increasingly networked, informed and awakened populations, creating a revolutionary crisis of the political order.
So what can we do to ensure that autocracies do not snuff out this democratic chain reaction? The first and most important priority will be to assist in every way we can the transitions that are underway, or may soon be underway, in the Middle East—and to do so in a manner that is responsive to the local actors, informed by the accumulated knowledge of democratic transitions that is now available, and clearly focused on the long-term goal of achieving stable democracy under the rule of law. We shouldn’t forget that Portugal is seen in retrospect to have initiated the Third Wave only because its Carnation Revolution was followed by a successful democratic transition and not a Communist takeover, which Kissinger at the time believed was inevitable. The transitions in the Middle East will be even harder to accomplish because these countries lack democratic experience and natural founding leaders like Mario Soares, Vaclav Havel, and Nelson Mandela, though they do possess the youthful energy of an emerging civil society, untapped reserves of local talent, and a new sense of pride and identity that can be built on in the period ahead.
The Middle East transitions will vary from one country to another, depending on local circumstances. Until now, most of the attention has been focused on Tunisia and Egypt where dictators were overthrown. But it may well be that the transitions there will be more difficult than in countries like Bahrain, Jordan, Yemen and Morocco if the leaders in these countries recognize that reform must be accelerated and deepened and, without delay, enter into serious dialogue and negotiation with opposition forces, many of which actually prefer this approach to regime change.
If these transitions are to succeed and not be blocked by the former ruling elite or captured by a new authoritarian movement, the experience of earlier transitions in Latin America, Southern and Central Europe and Asia tell us that a number of key steps need to be taken. The first is the creation of an interim civilian authority that can work with the political opposition and civic groups to determine the rules, design and timetable of the transition. The organization of an inclusive national dialogue or roundtable negotiation has been very helpful in earlier transitions. An immediate task is the removal of elements inherited from the old system, such as laws restricting the freedom of expression and political organization, which stand in the way of a fair and inclusive way of choosing a new government and drafting a new constitution. While elections need to be held relatively soon, it is best that they be sequenced in a way that allows them to be well organized and fairly administered, gives new political forces that were stifled under the old system time to organize, and are conducted under an electoral law will allow all significant elements of the society to be fairly represented in a new parliament, which might also serve as a constituent assembly. Designing such an electoral law is an exceedingly complex task, which is why it’s probably best to proceed first with the election of an interim president, whose tenure should be limited to the time it will take to draft a new constitution and hold elections for a new government. Whatever process is determined for drafting the constitution, it’s essential that it have broad public participation and buy-in.
International groups should be prepared to provide whatever assistance is needed and desired by local actors. Areas of support would include party development and election administration and monitoring, strengthening civil society and independent media, and making available the expertise of specialists in such fields as constitutionalism and electoral law as well as the experience of participants in earlier transitions. For example, CIPE and NDI, two of NED’s four core institutes, just arranged for an opposition leader of the Chilean transition in the late 1980s, Sergio Bitar, to speak by video link to a conference of 200 Egyptian NGO, party, media, academic and business representatives about how the Chilean democrats built consensus on a common platform, kept the military in check, and dealt with issues of human rights violations by the old regime. The conference was convened to build consensus behind recommendations to be submitted to the interim military authority on the transition process, the constitution, and the economy.
Significantly, the participants at the conference expressed great concern that the Supreme Military Council, the interim authority, is rushing the transition and not seeking any significant citizen input in the process. This is very worrisome, and it will clearly be necessary for the popular forces, whose protests achieved the democratic breakthrough, to monitor the process with vigilance to prevent its being subverted by the military and the old guard.
Such vigilance is also needed in Tunisia, where opposition forces have formed a committee to protect the revolution that is demanding a new constitutional assembly. Members of this committee took part last month in a public debate with Yadh Ben Achour, the President of the Interim government’s Political Reform Commission. The debate was organized, I might note, by the Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy, which is a long-time NED grantee. CSID reported that at the meeting Ben Achour accepted the idea of a constitutional assembly which, if it holds true, is a major step forward.
The United States has a great stake in the success of these transitions and should use its influence with the different governments, which is some cases is quite significant, to encourage them reach out to opposition parties and civic groups and negotiate in good faith. Only a failed or aborted transition will create the conditions of instability that could enable anti-democratic forces, Islamist or secular, to obtain a dominant position. If the transition process is open and fair; if new political forces are given time to organize; if the electoral law is crafted to encourage inclusive representation; and if elections are free and fair and become routine, it is unlikely that even a group as well organized as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt could achieve a hegemonic position. Noteworthy in this regard is a study published last spring in NED’s Journal of Democracy that surveyed the electoral performance of Islamic parties in 89 parliamentary elections in 21 countries over the past forty years. It found that they averaged about 15 percent of the vote in each, and that they tended to do worse the freer and more routinized elections were. Interestingly, Islamic parties also tended to do best in first elections after a period of authoritarian rule, when they were able to use their access to the mosque and the street to be the best organized opposition force; and their popularity is greater, as a general rule, when their electoral option is suppressed than when it is exercised. In other words, to paraphrase the famous slogan of the Muslim Brotherhood, democracy is the solution.
And so, of course, is economic reform, which must proceed in tandem with democratic political change. Political reform by itself is not enough. If democracy does not deliver for the people and continues to serve just the interests of entrenched elites that have dominated the economy for decades, public disillusionment and anger will reemerge and produce more upheaval. The answer is not economic populism which will not produce jobs and opportunity. The solution lies in fundamental institutional reform, including changes in the educational system to raise labor productivity and provide young people with the skills needed to compete in a global economy. A second priority will be removing barriers to entrepreneurship that have forced more than 80 percent of Egyptian businesses into the informal, extra-legal sector. This will require regulatory reform, the protection of property rights and contract enforcement, and changes in antiquated bankruptcy laws that inhibit risk-taking, all of which will require reform of the judicial system. The problem of corruption will also have to be addressed by building broad coalitions of business and civil society to ensure transparency and accountability in decision-making. This, in turn, will require a new opening for freedom of association—for business associations and trade unions as well as NGOs—which is the crucial link between democratic political change and economic reform. Building an inclusive economic and political system is a tall order, and it will not happen quickly. But it’s necessary to get started now.
If Egypt and the other countries undergoing transition commit themselves to a plan for real political and economic reform, the United States should be prepared to mobilize support for a program of international assistance of historic proportions—involving our own and other governments, the private sector, universities and other private institutions—to help these transitions succeed, leading to a new era of democracy in the Middle East.
A global strategy to advance democracy beyond the Middle East must start from the premise that the struggle for freedom in authoritarian countries will be more, not less, difficult in the period ahead. This is because the implications of the Arab awakening have alarmed autocratic leaders who are now desperately tightening political controls. In Zimbabwe, for example, 46 people were arrested and charged with treason for attending a lecture on the uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt. Two independent U.N. experts have reported a “dramatic surge” in executions in Iran, where a parliamentary session opened two weeks ago with a mob of over 200 members chanting “Death to Mousavi, Karroubi and Khatami”—respectively the former Prime Minister, Speaker, and President—for supporting a demonstration in Tehran’s main square in solidarity with the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. In Burma, where Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi has speculated that the Burmese military might someday follow the Egyptian model and not “fire on the people,” the regime has threatened her with a “tragic end.” In China, an anonymous online call for a “jasmine revolution” has sparked the harshest crackdown in recent years, with over 100 activists and lawyers in the last week subjected to such restrictions as criminal detention and involuntary disappearance, while even the words “today” and “tomorrow” have been banned on Chinese social media to prevent announcements of demonstrations. In Cuba, a long article by Fidel Castro expressing support for Gadhafi has been read by activists as a warning that the regime would follow the model of the Libyan dictator in response to a people’s uprising. Even in North Korea, where controls are tightest, special riot squads have been set up since the Middle East uprisings, and none of the hundreds of North Korean workers and medical personnel in Libya are being evacuated for fear that they might share information about the demonstrations they witnessed if they returned home.
Such repression can be expected to grow worse as regimes turn these threats and ad hoc reactions into comprehensive survival strategies in this new period. In developing a counter-strategy, it might be useful to reflect on the parallel recent experience of the backlash against civil society that Russia initiated in reaction to the Orange Revolution in Ukraine in 2004, and that was quickly adopted by many other governments, Egypt among them, that shared Russia’s fear of so-called “colored revolutions.”
The World Movement for Democracy took the lead in responding to this new challenge, issuing a report entitled “Defending Civil Society” that described the new laws and restrictions governing the work of independent NGOs and democracy assistance organizations, and setting forth the international principles that govern civil society and protect NGOs from the repressive intrusion of governments. An international campaign was then launched, starting with the mobilization of civil society and democracy assistance organizations and eventually reaching out to governments and international bodies. Secretary of State Clinton embraced this campaign with her address on civil society that was delivered to the Community of Democracies last July, and Canada now heads a working group of the Community that coordinates the work of governments and civil society groups in responding to new threats. There is also now for the first time a UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.
Something like this campaign must now be mounted to protect people on the front lines of the fight for freedom from the dangers posed by dictators trying to quarantine their regimes from the political repercussions of the Middle East revolutions. As with the defending civil society campaign, it will be necessary to build cooperation among civil society groups and democracy assistance organizations, and to engage international democracy-support networks like the World Movement for Democracy, the inter-governmental Community of Democracies, and the Parliamentary Forum, a new global network of like-minded legislators. Transatlantic cooperation is essential, but if this effort is to have a truly global character, it’s also important to enlist the participation of emerging market democracies like India, Brazil, Turkey, Indonesia, South Africa, and South Korea that until now have been largely ambivalent about supporting democracy internationally.
In addition to building international awareness and political support, this campaign needs to focus on three issues that will have a special bearing on the freedom struggles taking place in authoritarian countries. The first is the defense of human rights, a priority in this context since many of the countries where people will need help are among the world’s toughest dictatorships. Second, much greater attention will need to be given to support for Internet freedom, including helping groups gain secure and free access to the Internet, defend themselves against malware and other attacks, network with counterpart groups, and connect with donors and technology specialists who can address their specific needs. Finally, special focus will need to be placed on aiding the democracy struggle in China, not because it’s a large country with growing in wealth and power, but because, in the words of Nobel Laureate Liu Xiaobo, China now serves as “a blood transfusion machine for other dictatorships.” Liu doesn’t mince words: China, he said before he was imprisoned two years ago, is “a key link” in the global fight for democracy, and “rescue[ing] the world’s largest hostage population from enslavement is not only a matter of vital importance for the Chinese people themselves, but also a matter of vital importance for all free nations.”
The events in the Middle East are still unfolding, and it will probably be many years before we know if the transformation that has now begun will lead to a region and a world that is more democratic, more modern, and more peaceful. The transitions will encounter many obstacles and setbacks, and even where they are successful they will inevitably be accompanied by disappointment. Speaking about “the post-revolutionary hangover” two years into Poland’s transition, the philosopher Leszek Kolakowski observed that there has never been a successful revolution that did not produce “massive disappointment almost at the very moment of its victory,” since having “extremely inflated hopes” is “a necessary condition of success.” One is reminded of the “grumbling” against Moses and Aaron that occurred immediately after the exodus from Egypt.
Still, these revolutions have been historic, and their impact has already been felt far beyond the Middle East. This became clear to me recently when I was visited by Sam Rainsy, an exiled democratic dissident from Cambodia. He looked at me with a glow in his eye and said, “They showed that it can be done. Now people have the idea that change is possible, and that’s the most important thing of all.”
Carl Gershman is president of the National Endowment for Democracy. This article was adapted from a lecture given at New York University on March 1, 2011.
For more TNR, become a fan on Facebook and follow us on Twitter.
.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source URL:http://www.tnr.com/article/world/85143/middle-east-revolt-democratization
L’Europa e la primavera araba
di Jean Pisani-Ferry
PARIGI – Nel 1989 il muro che separava le due metà d’Europa crollò improvvisamente. Nel giro di pochi mesi, un ordine fino ad allora apparentemente immutabile lasciò il passo a commozione e ansia. All’inizio i vecchi paesi d’Europa erano paralizzati, intimoriti dall’ignoto e preoccupati per l’immigrazione, poi colsero appieno l’opportunità che la storia offriva loro.
L’Europa attuò programmi di assistenza finanziaria e tecnica, aprì negoziati commerciali e promise un allargamento ad est dell’Unione europea, che alla fine portò alla libera circolazione dei lavoratori oltre l’ex cortina di ferro. Da allora sono passati due decenni. Gli sforzi si sono rivelati un successo straordinario. La transizione economica e politica dell’Europa orientale ex-comunista è stata rapida e profonda e, a parte la drammatica eccezione della Jugoslavia, è stata condotta in modo pacifico, consentendo così una forte performance economica.
Potrebbe ripetersi una simile storia (ovviamente non identica) nel bacino meridionale del Mediterraneo? È la domanda cruciale che ci si pone in questa primavera araba.
I 500 milioni di abitanti dell’Unione europea hanno 170 milioni di vicini tra Agadir (Marocco) nella parte occidentale del Nord Africa e Port Said (Egitto) nella parte orientale, che attendono sulla soglia di casa dell’Europa e scrutano con bramosia la sua prosperità e democrazia. In Tunisia e in Egitto, hanno dimostrato la propria determinazione nel voler rovesciare i regimi che molti in occidente hanno visto come garanti di stabilità. Non stanno chiedendo altro che poter investire le proprie energie nella ripresa dei rispettivi paesi. Tuttavia, a meno che non vi sia una ragione per credere nell’arrivo di un miglioramento, l’attuale grido di libertà potrebbe trasformarsi in grido di disperazione, con tutti i rischi del caso.
La priorità sono i posti di lavoro. I giovani che stanno guidando la rivoluzione tunisina ed egiziana sono per lo più sottoccupati. Non sappiamo se i dati ufficiali, che riportano un tasso di disoccupazione giovanile pari a circa il 30%, siano corretti, ma è chiaro che tali economie sono incapaci di assorbire l’ondata demografica degli ultimi decenni. I recenti tassi di crescita – il 5-6% annuo in Egitto, Libia, Tunisia e Marocco – appaiono forti, ma sono meno impressionanti alla luce dei dieci anni di crescita annua al 2,5% nella popolazione attiva. Serve una crescita nettamente più forte che vada di pari passo con la creazione di nuovi posti di lavoro.
Gli ostacoli alla crescita non sono solo di tipo macroeconomico. È vero che l’Egitto è fragile, che le finanze pubbliche e il saldo delle partite correnti subiranno un crollo, e che l’inflazione dilagherà, se i governi cercheranno di rispondere alle proteste spendendo il denaro che non possiedono. Questi paesi devono fare maggiori investimenti e puntare sull’istruzione, anche se ciò implica inevitabilmente un costo. E l’assistenza internazionale dovrà certamente essere mobilitata. Ma non sono queste le questioni più pressanti.
Il freno principale allo sviluppo risiede nelle istituzioni economiche di questi paesi. Secondo la Banca mondiale, un permesso edilizio in Egitto costa tre volte il reddito medio annuo, servono 11 diversi passaggi per registrare una transazione immobiliare in Algeria, e il Marocco è al 154° posto su 183 paesi per la tutela degli azionisti dall’abuso di potere da parte del management.
Questi sono solo alcuni esempi. Fanno tutti riferimento ad economie in cui lo sviluppo è ostacolato dalla burocrazia, da rendite monopolistiche – spesso il risultato di clientelismo politico o nepotismo – e da mercati del credito sclerotici.
È impraticabile e quindi impensabile cercare di esportare le soluzioni utilizzate nell’Est Europa, che prevedevano di importare la legislazione comunitaria in vista di un allargamento. Ma le attuali rivoluzioni politiche presentano una chance davvero unica per l’emancipazione economica, che l’Ue può sostenere creando incentivi per le riforme e mobilitando le banche di sviluppo.
Considerato il ruolo dominante rivestito nella regione, l’Europa può esercitare un’influenza più diretta sulle politiche relative al commercio e alla mobilità. Oggi, la migrazione è estremamente limitata. La mobilità professione deve essere concessa senza ulteriori indugi. Anche la libera circolazione delle merci è circoscritta. In proporzione al Pil, il commercio della Tunisia con l’Ue è solo la metà di quello della Repubblica ceca e quello del Marocco è un quarto di quello della Polonia.
Serve un’apertura da parte dell’Europa non solo per le merci, ma anche per i servizi. L’Europa dovrebbe promuovere, più di quanto non abbia fatto sinora, un modello di outsourcing nei segmenti ad alta densità di manodopera della filiera produttiva, come ha fatto con successo la Germania (soprattutto nell’Est Europa) – fatto che spiega in parte il suo rimbalzo nella leadership dell’export a livello globale. Pur dovendo inizialmente mettere in conto la perdita di alcuni posti di lavoro in Europa, tale modello preserverebbe i posti di lavoro nel lungo periodo mantenendo competitivi i siti di produzione, e creerebbe nuovi posti aprendo la strada allo sviluppo, e quindi ai mercati dell’export, in Nord Africa.
Il primo ministro francese, Pierre Mendès-France, che negli anni 50 aveva ritirato il proprio paese dalla Guerra in Vietnam e dalla colonizzazione in Tunisia, sosteneva che governare è scegliere. Ora l’Europa è a un bivio e deve fare la sua scelta: azionarsi per aiutare i propri vicini nel rilancio delle loro economie e società oppure iniziare a rinforzare la guardia costiera e ordinare navi pattuglia.
Jean Pisani-Ferry è direttore di Bruegel, un think tank economico internazionale, professore di economia all’Université Paris-Dauphine e membro del Consiglio di analisi economica del Primo ministro francese.
Copyright: Project Syndicate, 2011.www.project-syndicate.orgPodcast di questo articolo in inglese:Traduzione di Simona Polverino
Limes - rivista italiana di geopolitica
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Un fardello di gelsomini
di Paolo Quercia
La posta in palio delle rivolte nel Mediterraneo è lo scontro tra l’ordine autoritario del postcolonialismo e il disordine liberale della postmodernità. Se vincono “i gelsomini” si rischia il crollo di un sistema di confini vecchio di un secolo e il ritorno allo scramble for Africa precoloniale.
Tunisia, Egitto, Libia. Tre paesi mediterranei, tre paesi diversi, tre rivoluzioni dagli esiti imprevisti. L’Occidente colto di sorpresa si è dimostrato incapace di predire gli avvenimenti, in difficoltà a interpretarne le dinamiche, in ritardo a prevederne gli sviluppi. E dunque impossibilitato ad agire politicamente e militarmente qualora ve ne fosse necessità.
Come spesso accade quando viene meno la capacità di comprendere fenomeni complessi, si preferisce ricorrere alla banalizzazione dei contenuti ed etichettare i processi con nomi ben auguranti che indicano quale sia l’esito auspicato e, soprattutto, possano essere utilizzati per globalizzare ed esportare il fenomeno.
Nella convinzione che il “mondo piatto” di Friedman esista davvero, l’improbabile nome di "Rivoluzione dei gelsomini" è stato creato non tanto per definire il putsch contro il presidente Ben Ali in Tunisia, quanto piuttosto per usarlo come modello mediatico globale per promuovere il marketing della rivolta, facendola scivolare dalle piazze del Nord Africa a quelle della penisola arabica, fino alle strade di Teheran o di Pechino.
Se ignote e difficili da indagare sono le cause più contingenti delle rivolte, più chiare sono le ragioni di lungo periodo che hanno messo in crisi i governi nord africani e reso esplosive le piazze del mondo arabo-islamico. Il cuore del problema in cui si dibattono i paesi fra questi più avanzati, ossia quelli della sponda Sud del Mediterraneo, non è da attribuirsi tanto al ritardo economico rispetto all’Occidente o all’inadeguatezza di alcuni modelli di sviluppo sociale, quanto piuttosto a quella profonda frattura, creatasi negli ultimi trent’anni all’interno delle società islamiche, dovuta al diverso impatto che la globalizzazione ha avuto sulla popolazione e sulle strutture di governo.
I governi e le élites statali del mondo arabo il cui potere è oggi più che mai sotto assedio sono in buona parte i protagonisti o i diretti eredi della lotta postcoloniale. Una lotta di “liberazione” con la quale dagli anni Sessanta in poi le componenti più avanzate e moderniste del mondo arabo hanno sostituito i colonialisti occidentali impossessandosi della macchina-Stato e del “potere moderno” che essa rappresentava rispetto alle forme più tradizionali di organizzazione sociale.
Lo Stato postcoloniale, sia a guida europea sia a guida araba, rappresentava una struttura all’avanguardia rispetto alla propria società, riproducendo in molti paesi lo strumento di attuazione di processi di modernizzazione autoritari che avevano tuttavia una propria legittimità nella creazione di sviluppo e nella fornitura di beni e servizi a società in buona parte premoderne.
Il passaggio di ownership alle élites arabe postcoloniali ha sostanzialmente lasciato invariati molti dei confini coloniali, con l’applicazione del principio dell’uti possidetis al continente africano, fossilizzando per oltre un trentennio confini e governi del Nord Africa.
Ma se la decolonizzazione ha congelato regimi e confini, non ha impedito all’Europa di continuare a esercitare il suo influsso modernizzatore sulle masse arabe. A partire dagli anni Ottanta l’influsso dell’Europa sul continente africano è proseguito per mezzo dei processi migratori, delle relazioni commerciali, le delocalizzazioni produttive e - soprattutto - con la penetrazione attraverso il soft power dei media satellitari negli anni Novanta e dei nuovi media nell’ultimo decennio, del messaggio culturale occidentale.
La strategia americana del Grande Medio Oriente, avviata da Clinton e proseguita (e perfezionata) da Bush, inizia a prendere forma, pur in modi e tempi imprevisti. Se regimi e confini sono sostanzialmente rimasti fermi alla modernità postcoloniale degli anni Settanta, le masse arabe sono state investite dall’onda anomala della postmodernità entrando in uno sdoppiamento al tempo stesso culturale e temporale.
Le categorie della postmodernità sono gradualmente ma inesorabilmente penetrate in società in cui la macchina amministrativa decisionale era già in difficoltà a conciliare la modernità statuale d’importazione con la tradizione islamica autoctona di derivazione premoderna.
I regimi arabi islamici di derivazione postcoloniale si trovano oggi a vivere un conflitto spazio-temporale, compressi tra il ribellismo tradizionalista premoderno e quello libertario postmoderno. E, come spesso accade, con i due poli ribellisti che si toccano e si intersecano, mischiandosi - nelle stesse piazze contro la stessa polizia - in un pericoloso intreccio delle più disparate agende politiche e sociali di una galassia di movimenti che, potremmo dire, si estende from twitters to tribes.
Nel lungo periodo, difficilmente i regimi postcoloniali riusciranno a sopravvivere, schiacciati tra queste due morse della tenaglia in cui si trovano. Il processo di destrutturazione di molti regimi arabo-islamici è talmente avanzato da lasciare intravedere ormai le linee di frattura che seguiranno alla fine dei regimi post-coloniali. Numerosi segnali lasciano tuttavia prevedere che, caduti i regimi, le linee di frattura divideranno in maniera non pacifica molte società e, soprattutto, rimetteranno in discussione i confini tracciati dalle potenze europee coloniali sopravvissuti alla decolonizzazione.
La conseguenza rilevante delle rivoluzioni in atto nel Nord Africa difficilmente sarà costituita dal trionfo di valori immateriali quali la libertà o la democrazia che, pur presenti nelle dinamiche insurrezionali in atto, difficilmente si stabilizzeranno in regimi democratici: il vero palio di questi processi di ribellismo della postmodernità incalzante nel mondo arabo-islamico sarà un premio molto tradizionale: il vecchio obiettivo di ogni Stato e di ogni regime dall’inizio della Storia, ovverosia tracciare nuovi confini o difenderne di antichi.
A Sud del Nord Africa, nella parte centro-orientale del continente africano ad influenza anglofona - un’area in cui la modernità si è affermata a stento e il mondo premoderno è esposto direttamente all’irradiazione della postmodernità - Somalia e Sud Sudan hanno già dato l’avvio al nuovo great game postmoderno. Una buona parte del quale si giocherà proprio nel nostro estero vicino, lungo la sponda Sud Orientale del Mediterraneo, punto di incontro del continente africano e del Medio Oriente.
L’Occidente ha un nuovo fardello da esportare. Questa volta carico di Gelsomini.
[1] Per una ricostruzione degli eventi precedenti vedasi dossier Documentazione e ricerche nn. 208 e 208/1
[2] Per le giornate precedenti vedasi dossier Documentazione e ricerche nn. 208 e 208/1
[3] Traduzione in italiano disponibile sul sito www.foreignpolicy.com con revisione del Servizio Studi della Camera dei deputati